What Is a Letter of Credit ?

What Is a Letter of Credit?

When you hear the phrase 'letter of credit,' it might be natural to think it refers to a document verifying that you are creditworthy, but that isn't the case. A letter of credit is a document issued by a third party that guarantees payment for goods or services when the seller provides acceptable documentation. Letters of credit are usually issued by banks or other financial institutions, but some creditworthy financial services companies, like insurance companies or mutual funds, might issue letters of credit under certain circumstances.

A letter of credit generally has three participants. First, there is the beneficiary, the person or company who will be paid. Next, there is the buyer or applicant of the goods or services. This is the one who needs the letter of credit. Finally, there is the issuing bank, the institution issuing the letter of credit. In addition, the beneficiary may request payment to an advising bank, which is a bank where the beneficiary is a client, rather than directly to the beneficiary. This might be done, for example, if the advising bank financed the transaction for the beneficiary until payment was received.
Letters of credit are most often used in international trade, where they are governed by the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (or UCP), the rules of the International Chamber of Commerce. However, they can be used in other situations, as we shall see.

Types and Features of Letters of Credit
Most letters of credit are import/export letters of credit, which, as the name implies, are letters of credit that are used in international trade. The same letter of credit would be termed an import letter of credit by the importer and an export letter of credit by the exporter. In most cases, the importer is the buyer and the exporter is the beneficiary.
There are also other types of letters of credit. The revocable letter of credit can be changed at any time by either the buyer or the issuing bank with no notification to the beneficiary. The most recent version of the UCP, UCP 600, did away with this form of letter of credit for any transaction under their jurisdiction. Conversely, the irrevocable letter of credit only allows change or cancellation of the letter of credit by the issuing bank after application by the buyer and approval by the beneficiary. All letters of credit governed by the current UCP are irrevocable letters of credit.
A confirmed letter of credit is one where a second bank agrees to pay the letter of credit at the request of the issuing bank. While not usually required by law, an issuing bank might be required by court order to only issue confirmed letters of credit if they are in receivership. As you might guess, an unconfirmed letter of credit is guaranteed only by the issuing bank. This is the most common form with regard to confirmation.
A letter of credit may also be a transferrable letter of credit. These are commonly used when the beneficiary is simply an intermediary for the real supplier of the goods and services or is one of a group of suppliers. It allows the named beneficiary to present its own documentation but transfer all or part of the payment to the actual suppliers. As you might guess, an un-transferrable letter of credit does not allow transfer of payments to third parties.
A letter of credit may also be at sight, which is payable as soon as the documentation has been presented and verified, or payment may be deferred. Deferred letters of credit are also called a usance letter of credit and may be put off until a certain time period has passed or the buyer has had the opportunity to inspect or even sell the related goods.
A red clause letter of credit allows the beneficiary to receive partial payment before shipping the products or performing the services. Originally, these terms were written in red ink, hence the name. In practical use, issuing banks will rarely offer these terms unless the beneficiary is very creditworthy or an advising bank agrees to refund the money if the shipment is not made.
Finally, a back-to-back letter of credit is used in a trade involving an intermediary, such as a trading house. It is actually made up of two letters of credit, one issued by the buyer's bank to the intermediary and the other issued by the intermediary's bank to the seller.

Documentation Requirements
In order to receive payment, the beneficiary must present documentation of completion of their part in the transaction to the issuing bank. The documents that the issuing bank will accept are specified in the letter of credit, but may often include:

• Bills of exchange
• Invoices
• Government documents such as licenses, certificates of origin, inspection certificates, embassy legalizations, and phytosanitary certificates
• Shipping and transport documents such as bills of lading and airway bills
• Insurance policies or certificates, except cover notes

Risks in Letter of Credit Transactions

Letter of credit transactions are not without risks. The risks inherent in these types of transactions include:

Fraud risk, in which the payment is obtained through the use of falsified or forged documents for worthless or nonexistent merchandise
Regulatory risk, in which government action may prevent completion of the transaction
Legal risk, in which legal action prevents completion of the transaction
Force majeure risk, in which completion of the transaction is prevented by an external force, such as war or natural disaster
Failure of the issuing or collecting bank
Or insolvency of the buyer or beneficiary
In addition, the normal risks inherent in transactions, such as non-delivery, shipping less than was ordered, inferior quality merchandise, early or late shipment, or goods being damaged in transit, apply.
A Letter of Credit in Action
Sometimes the best way to understand a concept is to walk through an example, so that's exactly what we'll do.

-------------------------------------------------------

 AIAT Institute,

 15, Bhande Plot Umred Road, Nagpur Mob. 9373104022   
www.aiatindia.com

EXPORT DOCUMENTATION AND PROCEDURES

Exporters should seriously consider having the freight forwarder handle the formidable amount of documentation that exporting requires; freight forwarders are specialists in this process. The following documents are commonly used in exporting; which of them are actually used in each case depends on the requirements of both our government and the government of the importing country.

• 1. Commercial invoice
• 2. Bill of lading
• 3. Consular invoice
• 4. Certificate of origin
• 5. Inspection certification
• 6. Dock receipt and warehouse receipt
• 7. Destination control statement
• 8. Insurance certificate
• 9. Export license
• 10. Export packing list

STEP1: Enquiry :
The starting point for any Export Transaction is an enquiry.
An enquiry for product should, inter alia, specify the following details or provide the following data
Size details - Std. or oversize or undersize
Drawing, if available
Sample, if possible
Quantity required
Delivery schedule
Is the price required on FOB or C& F or CIF basis
Mode of Dispatch - Sea, air or Sea/air
Mode of Packing
Terms of Payment that would be acceptable to the Buyer - If the buyer proposes to open any Letter of Credit, any specific requirement to be complied with by the Exporter
Is there any requirement of Pre-shipment inspection and if so, by which agency
Any Certificate of Origin required - If so, from what agency.

STEP 2: - Proforma generation :
After studying the enquiry in detail, the exporter - be it Manufacturer Exporter or Merchant Exporter - will provide a Proforma Invoice to the Buyer.

STEP 3: Order placement :
If the offer is acceptable to the Buyer in terms of price, delivery and payment terms, the Buyer will then place an order on the Exporter, giving as much data as possible in terms of specifications, Part No. Quantity etc. (No standard format is required for such a purchase order)

STEP 4: Order acceptance :
It is advisable that the Exporter immediately acknowledges receipt of the order, giving a schedule for the delivery committed.

STEP 5: Goods readiness & documentation :
Once the goods are ready duly packed in Export worthy cases/cartons (depending upon the mode of despatch), the Invoice is prepared by the Exporter.
If the number of packages is more than one, a packing list is a must.
Even If the goods to be exported are excisable, no excise duty need be charged at the time of Export, as export goods are exempt from Central Excise, but the AR4 procedure is to be followed for claiming such an exemption.
Similarly, no Sales Tax also is payable for export of goods.

STEP 6: Goods removal from works :
There are different procedures for removing Export consignments to the Port, following the AR4 procedure, but it would be advisable to get the consignment sealed by the Central Excise authorities at the factory premises itself, so that open inspection by Customs authorities at the Port can be avoided.
If export consignments are removed from the factory of manufacture, following the AR4 procedure, claiming exemption of excise duty, there is an obligation cast on the exporter to provide proof of export to the Central Excise authorities

STEP 7: Documents for C & F agent :
The Exporter is expected to provide the following documents to the Clearing & Forwarding Agents, who are entrusted with the task of shipping the consignments, either by air or by sea.
Invoice
Packing List
Declaration in Form SDF (to meet the requirements as per FERA) in duplicate.
AR4 - first and the second copy
Any other declarations, as required by Customs
On account of the introduction of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) system for processing shipping bills electronically at most of the locations - both for air or sea consignments - the C&F Agents are required to file with Customs the shipping documents, through a particular format, which will vary depending on the nature of the shipment. Broad categories of export shipments are:
Under claim of Drawback of duty
Without claim of Drawback
Export by a 100% EOU
Under DEPB Scheme

STEP 8: Customs Clearance :
After assessment of the shipping bill and examination of the cargo by Customs (where required), the export consignments are permitted by Customs for ultimate Export. This is what the concerned Customs officials call the ‘LET EXPORT’ endorsement on the shipping bill.

STEP 9: Document Forwarding :
After completing the shipment formalities, the C & F Agents are expected to forward to the Exporter the following documents:
Customs signed Export Invoice & Packing List
Duplicate of Form SDF
Exchange control copy of the Shipping Bill, processed electronically
AR4 (original duplicate) duly endorsed by Customs for having effected the Export
Bill of Lading or Airway bill, as the case may be.

STEP 10: Bills negotiation :
With these authenticated shipping documents, the Exporter will have to negotiate the relevant export bill through authorized dealers of Reserve Bank, viz., Banks.
Under the Generalized System of Preference, imports from developing countries enjoy certain duty concessions, for which the exporters in the developing countries are expected to furnish the GSP Certificate of Origin to the Bankers, along with other shipping documents.
Broadly, payment terms can be:
DP Terms
DA Terms
Letter of Credit, payable at sight or payable at... days.

Step11: Bank to bank documents forwarding :
The negotiating Bank will scrutinize the shipping documents and forward them to the Banker of the importer, to enable him clear the consignment.
It is expected of such authorized dealers of Reserve Bank to ensure receipt of export proceeds, which factor has to be intimated to the Reserve Bank by means of periodical Returns.

STEP 12: Customs obligation discharge :
As indicated above, Exporters are also expected to provide proof of export to the Central Excise authorities, on the basis of the Customs endorsements made on the reverse of AR4s and get their obligation, on this score, discharged.

STEP 13: Receipt of Bank certificate :
Authorized dealers will issue Bank Certificates to the exporter, once the payment is received and only with the issuance of the Bank Certificate, the export transaction becomes complete.
It is mandatory on the part of the Exporters to negotiate the shipping documents only through authorized dealers of Reserve Bank, as only through such a system Reserve Bank can ensure receipt of export proceeds for goods shipped out of this country.

Why is GST Important For India

GST is expected to be a critical reform in spurring growth in the economy. When introduced, GST will not only make the tax system simpler, but will also help in increased compliance, boost tax revenues, reduce the tax outflow in the hands of the consumers and make exports competitive. It is hoped that the new Government will set forth a roadmap of the GST implementation in the upcoming Budget. The GST or the Goods and Service Tax is a long pending indirect tax reform which India has been waiting for, and which is hoped to iron out the wrinkles in the existing tax system. This comprehensive tax policy is expected to be one of the most important reforms in contributing to the India growth story. To begin with, the GST is a value added tax to be levied on both goods and services (except for a list of exempted goods and services), at both the centre and state level (Central GST and State GST respectively). This is a single tax which will be levied on the product or service which is sold. In other words, multiple taxes like CENVAT, central sales tax, state sales tax, octroi, etc will not exist and will be replaced by GST. This comprehensive tax covers all stages from manufacture to sale. The tax will be levied only on the value added at each stage of the life cycle. The GST, as mentioned above is an indirect tax and will be borne by the customer. There will be a standard rate of GST across various goods and services, which could broadly be in line with international rates. World over, GST has been implemented in over 150 countries. You may wonder why this tax reform is so important for the country and how it will help the common man. Here’s how: 

Simpler tax structure: As multiple taxes on a product or service are eliminated and a single tax comes into place, the tax structure is expected to be much simpler and easier to understand. Paperwork will become simpler and there will be a reduction in accounting complexities for businesses. A simple taxation regime can make the manufacturing sector more competitive and save both money and time. Experts opine that the implementation of GST would push up GDP by 1%-2%.

Increased tax revenues: A simpler tax structure can bring about greater compliance, thus increasing the number of tax payers and in turn tax revenues for the Government. The current state of the Indian economy demands fiscal consolidation and reduction in fiscal deficit. A recent report by CRISIL states that GST is the country’s best bet to achieve fiscal consolidation. As there is not much scope to reduce Government expenditure, increasing tax revenues is the best alternative to improve the fiscal health. 

Competitive pricing: GST will eliminate all other forms of indirect taxing. This will effectively mean that the tax paid by the final consumer will come down in most cases. Lower prices will help in boosting consumption, which is again beneficial to companies. The biggest positive of GST is that goods and services will be taxed on a common basis. 

Boost to exports: When the cost of production falls in the domestic market, Indian goods and services will be more price-competitive in foreign markets. This can bode well for exporters, who compete with manufacturers abroad facing a lower cost structure. The exact rate of tax levied under GST will obviously be clear only when the final announcement will be made. Irrespective of the tax rate, it is logical and apparent from examples of other countries, that GST is a critical reform needed for the country. However, many state Governments are not in favour of this move, as it will result in a fall in their tax revenues. Arriving at a suitable formula to solve this problem, making constitutional changes and considering all the dynamics in the economy has resulted in a considerable delay in GST’s implementation. The CRISIL report states that at best, only a partial rollout of GST will be possible by the Government in the next financial year. The majority win by the ruling party in the recent elections has given a renewed hope that such important structural reforms will be brought into place without much delay. It is hoped fervently by the industry that Budget 2015 will spell out some solid measures and give a roadmap to the implementation of the GST. 

क्या है GST

वस्तु और सेवा कर (जीएसटी) एक अप्रत्यक्ष कर है। जीएसटी के तहत वस्तुओं और सेवाओं पर एक समान कर लगाया जाता है। जहां जीएसटी लागू नहीं है, वहां वस्तुओं और सेवाओं पर अलग-अलग टैक्स लगाए जाते हैं। सरकार अगर इस बिल को 2016 से लागू कर देती तो हर सामान और हर सेवा पर सिर्फ एक टैक्स लगेगा यानी वैट, एक्साइज और सर्विस टैक्स की जगह एक ही टैक्स लगेगा। संक्षिप्त में कहे तो भारत में 20 तरह के टैक्स लगते हैं और अब एक टैक्स इन सबकी जगह ले लेगा, और वो होगा जीएसटी।

इससे पूरे देश में वस्तुओं और सेवाओं की कीमतें लगभग एक हो जाएंगी। उत्पादन लागत घटेगी, जिससे उपभोक्ताओं के लिए सामान सस्ता होगा।

जीएसटी के फायदे

● इससे पूरे देश में किसी भी सामान को खरीदने के लिए एक ही टैक्स चुकाना होगा। यानी पूरे देश में किसी भी सामान की कीमत एक ही रहेगी।

● इससे कर की वसूली करते समय कर विभाग के अधिकारियों द्वारा कर में हेराफेरी की संभावना भी कम हो जाएगी।

● इसके लागू होने के बाद राज्यों को मिलने वाला वैट, मनोरंजन कर, लग्जरी टैक्स, लॉटरी टैक्स, एंट्री टैक्स आदि भी खत्म हो जाएंगे। जिससे अभी जिस सामान के लिए 30-35 प्रतिशत टैक्स के रूप में चुकाना पड़ता है वो भी घटकर 20-25 प्रतिशत पर आ जायेगा।

● भारत की ग्रोथ रेट में भी एक से डेढ़ फीसदी की बढ़ोतरी होगी।

● केंद्रीय बिक्री कर (सीएसटी) खत्म हो जाएगा। प्रवेश शुल्क और चुंगी भी खत्म हो जाएगी। अलग-अलग टैक्स की बजाय एक टैक्स लगने की वजह से चीजों के दाम घटेंगे और आम उपभोक्ताओं को फायदा होगा।

जीएसटी के किसको होगा नुकसान

जीएसटी लागू होने से राज्यों को डर है कि इससे उन्हें नुकसान होगा क्योंकि इसके बाद वे कई तरह के टैक्स नहीं वसूले पाएंगे जिससे उनका राजस्व कम हो जाएगा। इसे ध्यान में रखते हुए केंद्र ने राज्यों को राहत देते हुए मंजूरी दे दी है कि वे इन वस्तुओं पर शुरुआती सालों में टैक्स लेते रहें। साथ ही, राज्यों का जो भी नुकसान होगा, केंद्र उसकी भरपाई पांच साल तक करेगा।

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Industrial Accounting & Taxation Training Institute 
15,Bhande Plot Umred Road Nagpur  mob. 9373104022

AIAT Institute information

जीएसटी। यानी गुड्स एंड सर्विस टैक्स क्या है।

जीएसटी को इस दशक का सबसे अहम आर्थिक सुधार माना जा रहा है। जीएसटी लागू होने के बाद वस्तुओं और सेवाओं पर अलग-अलग लगने वाले सभी कर एक ही कर में समाहित हो जाएंगे। 

इससे पूरे देश में वस्तुओं और सेवाओं की कीमतें लगभग एक हो जाएंगी। मैन्युफैक्चरिंग लागत घटेगी, जिससे उपभोक्ताओं के लिए सामान सस्ता होगा। 

अप्रत्यक्ष कर की इस नई व्यवस्था से अर्थव्यवस्था को 60 लाख करोड़ रुपये का फायदा होगा। पेश है जीएसटी, अब तक इसके सफर और आगे की संभावना पर दीपक मंडल का विश्लेषण।

क्या है जीएसटी

जीएसटी एक वैट है, जो वस्तुओं और सेवाओं दोनों पर लगेगा। मौजूदा दौर में वैट सिर्फ वस्तुओं पर लागू होता है। जीएसटी दो स्तरों पर लगेगा। 

एक केंद्रीय जीएसटी होगा, जबकि दूसरा राज्य का। इससे पूरा देश एकीकृत बाजार में तब्दील हो जाएगा और ज्यादातर अप्रत्यक्ष कर जीएसटी में समाहित हो जाएंगे।

क्या होगा फायदा

केंद्र के स्तर पर यह केंद्रीय उत्पाद शुल्क, सेवा कर और अतिरिक्त सीमा शुल्क और राज्य स्तर पर वैट, मनोरंजन, विलासिता, लॉटरी टैक्स और बिजली शुल्क को समाहित कर लगेगा। 

केंद्रीय बिक्री कर (सीएसटी) खत्म हो जाएगा। प्रवेश शुल्क और चुंगी भी खत्म हो जाएगी। अलग-अलग टैक्स की बजाय एक टैक्स लगने की वजह से चीजों के दाम घटेंगे और आम उपभोक्ताओं को फायदा होगा। 

सरकार की टैक्स वसूली की लागत भी घट जाएगी। जीएसटी दर का खुलासा नहीं हुआ है। ज्यादातर देशों में यह 14 से 16 फीसदी तक है।

क्या थीं अड़चनें

राज्यों को अपने राजस्व और स्वायत्तता के नुकसान का डर था। सबसे बड़ा विरोध पेट्रोलियम उत्पादों पर लगाए जाने वाले टैक्स को लेकर था। राज्यों का 50 फीसदी राजस्व इसी से आता है। 

राज्य केंद्रीय बिक्री कर (सीएसटी) खत्म हो जाने की वजह से होने वाली राजस्व हानि को लेकर भी चिंतित थे। सीएसटी अंतर राज्य कारोबार पर लगने वाला टैक्स है। 

निर्यात करने वाले राज्य की ओर से लगाए जाने वाले इस टैक्स को 2007 में चार फीसदी से घटा कर दो फीसदी कर दिया गया था। 

केंद्र ने राज्यों को 2010 तक इसकी भरपाई का वादा किया था। लेकिन 2010 के बाद केंद्र ने इसे बंद कर दिया था। विरोध की यह बड़ी वजह थी।

क्या निकला रास्ता

चूंकि राज्यों के राजस्व का 50% पेट्रो उत्पादों पर लगने वाले टैक्स से आता है लिहाजा उन्हें राहत देने के लिए इसे जीएसटी में शामिल करने के बावजूद केंद्र इस पर तीन साल तक टैक्स नहीं वसूलेगा। 

राज्य तीन साल तक इस पर टैक्स वसूल सकते हैं। केंद्र ने सीएसटी का भुगतान बंद होने पर राज्यों को होने वाले घाटे की भरपाई के लिए इस वित्त वर्ष में 11000 करोड़ रुपये देने का वादा किया है। 

केंद्र डेढ़ करोड़ रुपये का कारोबार करने वाले कारोबारियों से टैक्स वसूलेगा। अल्कोहल और तंबाकू पर टैक्स उगाही राज्य ही करेंगे।

================================================

AIAT Institute

Industrial Accounting and Taxation Practical Training

15, Bhande Plot Umred Road , Nagpur

Mob. 9373104022

Email.: info@aiatindia.com

Site : www.aiatindia.com

HOW TO WRITE A EFFECTIVE RESUME

click for Accounting JOBs

Your resume is your most important tool when applying for a job. It doesn't matter how qualified you are, or how much experience you have - if your resume is poorly presented or badly written, you're going to have trouble getting the job you want - or even an interview.

Taking the time to work on your resume is really important. The information on this page offers some tips and advice on how to make your resume the best it can be.

How to Write a Resume :

Key points that will serve as a compass as you go through each step of writing your resume.

IF U R Searching JOBs (MBA,BBA,BCA,Commerce, Arts, Sci, Candidates)  

Find a Job for Your Resume :

Learn why this step is important to writing a good resume. Don't make the mistake so many make by doing this step after they write their resumes.

List of Keywords for Your Resume :

Recruiters and employers search for keywords, so you need to put them in your resume if you want to be found.

Choose a Resume best Format

One size doesn't fit all when it comes to resume format. Learn which of these three resume formats will make your job search a success.

Chronological Resume Template

Functional Resume Template

Combination Resume Template

Resume Heading

Believe it or not, there's a right way and a wrong way to do this easy step. Be sure you do it the right way!

Job Objective

Learn the pros and cons of having a job objective statement, how to write a good one, and some good options for not having one. For example, here's a Sample of a Professional Title on a Resume.

Qualifications  Summary

 If the employer reads only this part of your resume, does she get the very best of what you have to offer? Find out how to make your Summary shine!

Work Experience / JOB Details

Know how to write your work history on your resume to make the best of it, even if you have tough problems. In this step, you'll learn:

How to Explain Unemployment on Your Resume

How to Overcome Age Discrimination With Dates on a Resume

Your Achievement Statements

Achievement statements tell the employer you're worth hiring, or at least interviewing for the job. Spend time on this part so you use your resume real estate wisely.

List of  Education on Your Resume

Where to put your Education section, what to list in it, and how to deal with many college degrees or no degree at all.

Community Service and Other Lists on Your Resume

Where and how to put all those lists of community service, skills, and other things that need a place of their own on your resume.

AIAT Institute

Industrial Accounting and Taxation Practical Training

15, Bhande Plot Umred Road , Nagpur

Mob. 9373104022

Email.: info@aiatindia.com

Site : www.aiatindia.com

What Is Accounting Standards

Accounting is the art of recording transactions in the best manner possible, so as to enable the reader to arrive at judgments/come to conclusions, and in this regard it is utmost necessary that there are set guidelines. These guidelines are generally called accounting policies. The intricacies of accounting policies permitted Companies to alter their accounting principles for their benefit. This made it impossible to make comparisons. In order to avoid the above and to have a harmonized accounting principle, Standards needed to be set by recognized accounting bodies. This paved the way for Accounting Standards to come into existence. Accounting Standards in India are issued By the Institute of Chartered Accountanst of India (ICAI).  Objective of Accounting Standards Objective of Accounting Standards is to standarize the diverse accounting policies and practices with a view to eliminate to the extent possible the non-comparability of financial statements and the reliability to the financial statements. The institute of Chatered Accountants of India, recognizing the need to harmonize the diversre accounting policies and practices, constituted at Accounting Standard Board (ASB) on 21st April, 1977. Compliance with Accounting Standards issued by ICAI Sub Section(3A) to section 211 of Companies Act, 1956 requires that every Profit/Loss Account and Balance Sheet shall comply with the Accounting Standards. 'Accounting Standards' means the standard of accounting recomended by the ICAI and prescribed by the Central Government in consultation with the National Advisory Committee on Accounting Standards(NACAs) constituted under section 210(1) of companies Act, 1956. Accounting Standards Issued by the Institute of Chatered Accountants of India are as below: Disclosure of accounting policies: Valuation Of Inventories: Cash Flow Statements Contingencies and events Occurring after the Balance sheet Date Net Profit or loss For the period, Prior period items and Changes in accounting Policies. Depreciation accounting. Construction Contracts. Revenue Recognition. Accounting For Fixed Assets. The Effect of Changes In Foreign Exchange Rates. Accounting For Government Grants. Accounting For Investments. Accounting For Amalgamation. Employee Benefits. Borrowing Cost. Segment Reporting. Related Party Disclosures. Accounting For Leases. Earning Per Share. Consolidated Financial Statement. Accounting For Taxes on Income. Accounting for Investment in associates in Consolidated Financial Statement. Discontinuing Operation. Interim Financial Reporting. Intangible assets. Financial Reporting on Interest in joint Ventures. Impairment Of assets. Provisions, Contingent, liabilities and Contingent assets. Financial instrument. Financial Instrument: presentation. Financial Instruments, Disclosures and Limited revision to accounting standards.

Disclosure of Accounting Policies: Accounting Policies refer to specific accounting principles and the method of applying those principles adopted by the enterprises in preparation and presentation of the financial statements.

Valuation of Inventories: The objective of this standard is to formulate the method of computation of cost of inventories / stock, determine the value of closing stock / inventory at which the inventory is to be shown in balance sheet till it is not sold and recognized as revenue.

Cash Flow Statements: Cash flow statement is additional information to user of financial statement. This statement exhibits the flow of incoming and outgoing cash. This statement assesses the ability of the enterprise to generate cash and to utilize the cash. This statement is one of the tools for assessing the liquidity and solvency of the enterprise.

Contigencies and Events occuring after the balance sheet date: In preparing financial statement of a particular enterprise, accounting is done by following accrual basis of accounting and prudent accounting policies to calculate the profit or loss for the year and to recognize assets and liabilities in balance sheet. While following the prudent accounting policies, the provision is made for all known liabilities and losses even for those liabilities / events, which are probable. Professional judgement is required to classify the likehood of the future events occuring and, therefore, the question of contingencies and their accounting arises. Objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting of contigencies and the events, which take place after the balance sheet date but before approval of balance sheet by Board of Directors. The Accounting Standard deals with Contingencies and Events occuring after the balance sheet date.

Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior Period Items and change in Accounting Policies : The objective of this accounting standard is to prescribe the criteria for certain items in the profit and loss account so that comparability of the financial statement can be enhanced. Profit and loss account being a period statement covers the items of the income and expenditure of the particular period. This accounting standard also deals with change in accounting policy, accounting estimates and extraordinary items.

Depreciation Accounting : It is a measure of wearing out, consumption or other loss of value of a depreciable asset arising from use, passage of time. Depreciation is nothing but distribution of total cost of asset over its useful life.

Construction Contracts : Accounting for long term construction contracts involves question as to when revenue should be recognized and how to measure the revenue in the books of contractor. As the period of construction contract is long, work of construction starts in one year and is completed in another year or after 4-5 years or so. Therefore question arises how the profit or loss of construction contract by contractor should be determined. There may be following two ways to determine profit or loss: On year-to-year basis based on percentage of completion or On completion of the contract.

Revenue Recognition : The standard explains as to when the revenue should be recognized in profit and loss account and also states the circumstances in which revenue recognition can be postponed. Revenue means gross inflow of cash, receivable or other consideration arising in the course of ordinary activities of an enterprise such as:- The sale of goods, Rendering of Services, and Use of enterprises resources by other yeilding interest, dividend and royalties. In other words, revenue is a charge made to customers / clients for goods supplied and services rendered.

Accounting for Fixed Assets : It is an asset, which is:- Held with intention of being used for the purpose of producing or providing goods and services. Not held for sale in the normal course of business. Expected to be used for more than one accounting period.

The Effects of changes in Foreign Exchange Rates : Effect of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rate shall be applicable in Respect of Accounting Period commencing on or after 01-04-2004 and is mandatory in nature. This accounting Standard applicable to accounting for transaction in Foreign currencies in translating in the Financial Statement Of foreign operation Integral as well as non- integral and also accounting for For forward exchange.Effect of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rate, an enterprises should disclose following aspects: Amount Exchange Difference included in Net profit or Loss; Amount accumulated in foreign exchange translation reserve; Reconciliation of opening and closing balance of Foreign Exchange translation reserve;

Accounting for Government Grants : Governement Grants are assistance by the Govt. in the form of cash or kind to an enterprise in return for past or future compliance with certain conditions. Government assistance, which cannot be valued reasonably, is excluded from Govt. grants,. Those transactions with Governement, which cannot be distinguished from the normal trading transactions of the enterprise, are not considered as Government grants.

Accounting for Investments : It is the assets held for earning income by way of dividend, interest and rentals, for capital appreciation or for other benefits.

Accounting for Amalgamation : This accounting standard deals with accounting to be made in books of Transferee company in case of amalgamtion. This accounting standard is not applicable to cases of acquisition of shares when one company acquires / purcahses the share of another company and the acquired company is not dissolved and its seperate entity continues to exist. The standard is applicable when acquired company is dissolved and seperate entity ceased exist and purchasing company continues with the business of acquired company

Employee Benefits : Accounting Standard has been revised by ICAI and is applicable in respect of accounting periods commencing on or after 1st April 2006. the scope of the accounting standard has been enlarged, to include accounting for short-term employee benefits and termination benefits.

Borrowing Costs : Enterprises are borrowing the funds to acquire, build and install the fixed assets and other assets, these assets take time to make them useable or saleable, therefore the enterprises incur the interest (cost on borrowing) to acquire and build these assets. The objective of the Accounting Standard is to prescribe the treatment of borrowing cost (interest + other cost) in accounting, whether the cost of borrowing should be included in the cost of assets or not.

Segment Reporting : An enterprise needs in multiple products/services and operates in different geographical areas. Multiple products / services and their operations in different geographical areas are exposed to different risks and returns. Information about multiple products / services and their operation in different geographical areas are called segment information. Such information is used to assess the risk and return of multiple products/services and their operation in different geographical areas. Disclosure of such information is called segment reporting.

Related Paty Disclosure : Sometimes business transactions between related parties lose the feature and character of the arms length transactions. Related party relationship affects the volume and decision of business of one enterprise for the benefit of the other enterprise. Hence disclosure of related party transaction is essential for proper understanding of financial performance and financial position of enterprise.

Accounting for leases : Lease is an arrangement by which the lesser gives the right to use an asset for given period of time to the lessee on rent. It involves two parties, a lessor and a lessee and an asset which is to be leased. The lessor who owns the asset agrees to allow the lessee to use it for a specified period of time in return of periodic rent payments.

Earning Per Share :Earning per share (EPS)is a financial ratio that gives the information regarding earning available to each equiy share. It is very important financial ratio for assessing the state of market price of share. This accounting standard gives computational methodology for the determination and presentation of earning per share, which will improve the comparison of EPS. The statement is applicable to the enterprise whose equity shares or potential equity shares are listed in stock exchange.

Consolidated Financial Statements : The objective of this statement is to present financial statements of a parent and its subsidiary (ies) as a single economic entity. In other words the holding company and its subsidiary (ies) are treated as one entity for the preparation of these consolidated financial statements. Consolidated profit/loss account and consolidated balance sheet are prepared for disclosing the total profit/loss of the group and total assets and liabilities of the group. As per this accounting standard, the conslidated balance sheet if prepared should be prepared in the manner prescribed by this statement.

Accounting for Taxes on Income : This accounting standard prescribes the accounting treatment for taxes on income. Traditionally, amount of tax payable is determined on the profit/loss computed as per income tax laws. According to this accounting standard, tax on income is determined on the principle of accrual concept. According to this concept, tax should be accounted in the period in which corresponding revenue and expenses are accounted. In simple words tax shall be accounted on accrual basis; not on liability to pay basis.

Accounting for Investments in Associates in consolidated financial statements : The accounting standard was formulated with the objective to set out the principles and procedures for recognizing the investment in associates in the cosolidated financial statements of the investor, so that the effect of investment in associates on the financial position of the group is indicated.

Discontinuing Operations : The objective of this standard is to establish principles for reporting information about discontinuing operations. This standard covers "discontinuing operations" rather than "discontinued operation". The focus of the disclosure of the Information is about the operations which the enterprise plans to discontinue rather than dsclosing on the operations which are already discontinued. However, the disclosure about discontinued operation is also covered by this standard.

Interim Financial Reporting (IFR) : Interim financial reporting is the reporting for periods of less than a year generally for a period of 3 months. As per clause 41 of listing agreement the companies are required to publish the financial results on a quarterly basis.

Intangible Assets : An Intangible Asset is an Identifiable non-monetary Asset without physical substance held for use in the production or supplying of goods or services for rentals to others or for administrative purpose

Financial Reporting of Interest in joint ventures : Joint Venture is defined as a contractual arrangement whereby two or more parties carry on an economic activity under 'joint control'. Control is the power to govern the financial and operating policies of an economic activity so as to obtain benefit from it. 'Joint control' is the contractually agreed sharing of control over economic activity.

Impairment of Assets : The dictionary meanong of 'impairment of asset' is weakening in value of asset. In other words when the value of asset decreases, it may be called impairment of an asset. As per AS-28 asset is said to be impaired when carrying amount of asset is more than its recoverable amount.

Provisions, Contingent Liabilities And Contingent Assets : Objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting for Provisions, Contingent Liabilitites, Contingent Assets, Provision for restructuring cost. Provision: It is a liability, which can be measured only by using a substantial degree of estimation. Liability: A liability is present obligation of the enterprise arising from past events the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the enterprise of resources embodying economic benefits.

Financial Instrument: Recognition and Measurement, issued by The Council of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, comes into effect in respect of Accounting periods commencing on or after 1-4-2009 and will be recommendatory in nature for An initial period of two years. This Accounting Standard will become mandatory in respect of Accounting periods commencing on or after 1-4-2011 for all commercial, industrial and business Entities except to a Small and Medium-sized Entity. The objective of this Standard is to establish principles for recognizing and measuring Financial assets, financial liabilities and some contracts to buy or sell non-financial items. Requirements for presenting information about financial instruments are in Accounting Standard.

Financial Instrument: presentation : The objective of this Standard is to establish principles for presenting financial instruments as liabilities or equity and for offsetting financial assets and financial liabilities. It applies to the classification of financial instruments, from the perspective of the issuer, into financial assets, financial liabilities and equity instruments; the classification of related interest, dividends, losses and gains; and the circumstances in which financial assets and financial liabilities should be offset. The principles in this Standard complement the principles for recognising and measuring financial assets and financial liabilities in Accounting Standard Financial Instruments:

Financial Instruments, Disclosures and Limited revision to accounting standards: The objective of this Standard is to require entities to provide disclosures in their financial statements that enable users to evaluate: the significance of financial instruments for the entity’s financial position and performance; and the nature and extent of risks arising from financial instruments to which the entity is exposed during the period and at the reporting date, and how the entity manages those risks. =================================================================================== Industrial Accounting & Taxation Training  15, Bhande Plot Umred Road Near Shitla Mata Mandir Nagpur Mob. 9373104022   www.aiatindia.com